OBJECTIVES:
For you to practice science through conducting a hands-on, scientific investigation. For you to gain further experience and confidence in your ability to do science and to critically think. For you to gain experience in writing and presenting scientifically.

ASSIGNMENT:
Choose a topic and submit a research question and proposal.
Collect data for two one-hour periods and then summarize and analyze the data.
Create a PowerPoint, and Present your findings to the class.

RESEARCH TOPICS:
Biodiversity or Composition
Plant biodiversity or composition: wash vs. desert
Plant biodiversity or composition: roadway vs. desert
Bird biodiversity or composition: campus vs. desert
Animal Behavior
Where do animals burrow? Under plants or not
Flight distance of birds on campus vs. off
Which direction to woodpeckers face their cavity
Other
What side of saguaros do arms grow out of
Number of arms vs. saguaro height
Ocotillo growth rate: compare habitats
Ocotillo growth rate of arms on S vs N side of plant
Creosote bush avoidance
Paloverde (nurse plant) effect
Height of plants next to road vs. away from road
Temperature: sun vs. shade

RESEARCH QUESTION:
This is a question that can be answered (considering the time and resources available) through collecting data in the field.  Ask yourself whether your question can be answered by just analyzing the data you collect in the field (without a literature review).  Hint: for this assignment, your initial question should be an “Are…” question (descriptive) rather than a “Why…” question (causal).  For example, ask, “Are there more holes on one side of a cactus than on the other sides?”  Don’t ask, “Why are there more holes on one side of a cactus than on the other sides?”  Before you can legitimately ask a “Why” question, you need to answer the “Are” question (maybe there aren’t more holes on one side of a cactus than on the other sides.  You will ask the “Why” question and create multiple hypotheses after you answer your descriptive question.

Definitions of useful terms:
Density: the number of individuals occurring in a given area (e.g., 50 plants per 2000 square meters).
Richness: the number of different species (e.g., 18 plant species)
Evenness: the spread of individuals among species (e.g., 25% of individuals in species a, etc.)
Diversity: a measure of both richness and evenness (e.g., Simpson's index)
Composition: compare number of species found only in area 1, only in area 2, and in both areas)

STEPS TO WRITING A PROPOSAL:

• Step 1 (Format). Create the format (title, name, headings, subheadings exactly as in sample proposal). Use the sample proposal as a template (you can even copy it and then use paste special and paste it into Word as unformatted text so it doesn't go in as html. After pasting, you can center the title/name, bold the headings/subheadings, etc. in Word and then replace my text with your information when ready. See the Proposal Format page for what to put in each section.

• Step 2 (Table/Graph). I know this sounds weird because you haven't even collected data yet, but before you do collect any data, it is best to know what you are going to do with it once you collect it. Once you have the table/graph, the rest falls in place (ie., confirm your research question will be answered by the data in your table/graph, write the methods that will get you those data, etc.). Notice how I call it Table 1 and include a complete caption that contains what the data are (including sample size), the location, the date (include time if important), and information about the statistics (because my table has the last column of statistical results). Also, make sure the independent variables are used as column headings and the dependent variable(s) are used as row headings.
  Example:
  

  Table 1. Plant (tree, shrub, and succulent) density (per 5000 m2) on the north- versus south-facing slope of Tumamoc Hill in Tucson, AZ as observed February 21 and 22, 2012. Significance (p<0.05) determined by chi square analysis.

  	North-facing Slope	South-facing Slope	Significant?
  Plant Density	110	55	yes: p<0.01

• Step 3 (Title/Name). Make your title informative (often best just to use your research question).
  Example: Plant density on the north-facing versus south-facing slope of Tumamoc Hill in Tucson, Arizona.

• Step 4 (Research Question). Write your research question next to the heading (make sure it is one sentence and has a question mark at the end).
  Example: How does plant density differ between the north-facing and south-facing slope of Tumamoc Hill in Tucson, AZ?

• Step 5 (Biological Interest). Read the literature to help you learn about your study and why it is interesting (if it is not going to be biologically interesting, then you shouldn't do the study). Most studies include a comparison, so you should talk about the variables that differ between the two factors you are comparing. Also, you should state why differences (or lack of differences) might matter.
• Example 1: If you are comparing plants on south-facing and north-facing slopes, then you should talk about how conditions might differ on the two slopes (e.g., amount of direct sunlight, evaporation rates, etc.) and how these conditions might affect the plants.
• Example 2: If you are studying preferences birds have for different kinds of seeds, then you need to know how the seeds differ (in nutrition, size, difficulty to eat, closeness to natural food, etc) and why this might matter to the birds.

• Step 6 (Hypotheses/Deductions). Hypotheses are possible answers to your question. Start with your null hypothesis (abbreviated H0) which is the one that states that there is no significant difference (effect). Then state a deduction (evidence you will use to support or refute your hypothesis) for your H0 (abbreviated D0). Deductions are usually given in the form of the statistical results that you would use to determine whether the hypothesis is correct or not (see the Statistics PowerPoint). Now state your alternative hypotheses (H1, H2, ...) and their deductions (D0, D1, ...).
  Example:
  H0: plant density will be similar on the north-facing and south-facing slopes of Tumamoc Hill in Tucson, AZ.
  D0: The p value for the chi square test comparing plant densities will be 0.05 or greater.
  
  H1: plant density will be greater on the north-facing than the south-facing slope of Tumamoc Hill in Tucson, AZ.
  D1: the p value for the chi square test will be less than 0.05 and the density will be greater on north-facing slope.
  
  H2: plant density will be greater on the south-facing than the north-facing slope of Tumamoc Hill in Tucson, AZ.
  D2: The p value for the chi square test will be less than 0.05 and the density will be greater on south-facing slope.
  

• Step 7 (Considerations). This section will help you make sure your study will work. If you do not have a good understanding of your study area, then you should visit your area to make sure your study will work (will your sample size be large enough, etc.). Consider collecting some data just to make sure your methods work (called a pilot study). Write down your assurances that you will have enough data. Also consider what variables you have to control (variables you have to keep the same between experimental groups).
  
  Example 1: Does plant density differ on north- versus south-facing slope?
  Adequate Sample Size: Based on my visit to the site, I estimate the north slope of Tumamoc Hill to have at least 600 meters x 800 meters (480,000 square meters) to sample and the south slope to have at least 500 meters by 500 meters (250,000 square meters) to sample and that there are plenty of trees, shrubs, and succulent plants. Based on my pilot study of one 50x5 meter transect strip on each slope of Tumamoc Hill, I estimate that I will be able to sample 2500-3000 square meters in 8 hours which is sufficient for my study. Time of day will not affect my study because it does not significantly affect perennial plant density. Because the two slopes are studied within one day of each other, the difference in dates will have little impact on the results. Because I am studying only perennial plants it does not matter much which starting date I choose..
  Controlled Variables: I will try as hard as I can to sample areas with similar steepness on both slopes and will not sample within washes or areas significantly impacted by humans on either slope because all three of these variables have been found to impact plant density.
  
  Example 2: Do birds prefer one type of bird seed over another?
  Adequate Sample Size/Pilot Study: I have begun feeding the birds and have counted from 23-67 bird visits per hour at my feeder for the two hours right after sunrise and this should give me a good enough sample size when I begin my study. I should start the study soon before it turns too cold/hot and the birds may stop coming.
  Controlled Variables: the two feeders will be exactly the same, and I will have both feeders out at the same time and will rotate the position of the feeders. I will make sure there is enough food in each feeder to last the whole hour of data collection each day.

• Step 8 (Dates/Times). Write the dates/times you think you will conduct your study. Make sure it is clear to the reader what times (start and stop) you will conduct your study each day, and don't forget to put in the year and am or pm.
  Example:
  On February 21, 2009 from 9 am until 1 pm I will sample the north-facing slope, and on February 22, 2009 from 9:00 am until 1:00 pm I will sample the south-facing slope.
  Here is a link that might prove helpful: Tucson sunrise/sunset times.
  

• Step 9 (Locations). Be clear on how you will choose which individuals to include in your study. Give predicted sample size if known. Sometimes you will not know, and in these cases, just state that you will keep repeating the collection of data (laying out one transect after another for example) until time runs out (you have one hour each of two days).
  Example:
  On the north and south sides of Tumamoc Hill (determined by compass), I will start at an arbitrary point 100 meters up from the bottom of the hill, and I will lay out five (more if time allows) 50-meter transects (10 transects total), 20 meters apart, running along the contour of the slope (not up and down the slope). The area sampled will be everything within 5 meters of each transect line (500 square meters per transect line). Total area sampled on each side of the hill will be 2500 square meters (or more if time allows).

• Step 10 (Data Collection). State the data you are going to collect and how you are going to collect it.
  Example: I will record the number of individuals for each tree, shrub, and succulent plant species that are at least 10 cm (4") tall within 5 meters of each transect line.

• Step 11 (Data Analysis). State what you are going to do with the data after you have collected it. Often you will sum data to get a total. Sometimes you will calculate averages or percentages. For most studies, you will then statistically analyze your data to compare to your deductions. In general, you will use the chi square test when comparing totals and the t-test when comparing averages..
  Example: I will sum the data from the five transects on each side of the hill to calculate density per 2500 square meters. I will analyze values for all plants combined and grouped by life form (trees, shrubs, succulents). Finally, I will compare numbers using the chi square test to determine if there are significant differences in plant density between the two sides of the hill.
  
  Example 2: Bird food study
  I will calculate the average number of bird visits to each feeder per hour over the 10 day period. I will compare these averages using the t-test to determine whether bird visitation rate differed significantly between the feeder with sunflower seeds and the feeder with millet seeds.

• Step 12 (Results). For the proposal, just refer to your table(s) and/or graph(s) and present the table(s)/graph(s) you already created in step 2 above. Make sure the caption is still correct. You can put your tables/graphs at the end of the whole proposal.
  Example:
  See Table 1.
  [ See sample table above in step 2]

• Step 13 (Literature Cited). List the sources you used in alphabetical order and give complete citations (see How to Cite Sources).

• Step 14 (Submit and Review Feedback). When you are finished, confirm that you have followed the correct format and submit your proposal to me by email. Do not collect data until you have received, understood, and revised your proposal based upon my feedback.